El complejo fenómeno de la diversidad

El temor a lo diferente

Si hiciéramos un recorrido histórico desde el Imperio Romano hacia el presente, y quizá antes también, es probable que observáramos que las sociedades, tanto occidentales como orientales, las más lejanas como las más cercanas, han tendido y tienden en la mayoría de los casos a organizarse homogéneamente, en otras palabras, a reproducir el modelo económica y políticamente dominante mediante la destrucción (desaparición) del diferente o su invisibilización (negación) o la obstaculización en su acceso a derechos. Las guerras y, en algunos casos las revoluciones, han intentado resolver las contradicciones resultantes de la confrontación entre dos o más modelos de poder, que contenían sendos proyectos de homogenización social, económica y política. Si bien es difícil sintetizarlo en la brevedad de este artículo, pero asumiendo el riesgo de esta afirmación, minoritarias han sido y son las propuestas que han transitado o transitan hacia la consolidación de la diversidad religiosa, cultural o social. La diversidad siempre debe instalarse como enemiga de la consolidación del poder hegemónico. Pareciera que la tendencia natural de la humanidad es a agruparse homogéneamente y que la aceptación de lo diferente, lo diverso, requiere de un proceso de debate en algunos casos, de lucha en otros, de instalación confrontativa con aquellos que se identifican como iguales, como pares y, en tanto tales, como referentes de lo que debe ser, de lo normal, como portadores de atributos incuestionables. En este sentido, Balibar (1991: 149)1  ha desarrollado el interesante concepto de “etnicidad ficticia”, entendiéndolo como la etnicidad fabricada. Dice al respecto, “ninguna nación posee naturalmente una base étnica, pero a medida que las formaciones sociales se nacionalizan, las poblaciones que incluyen, que se reparten o que dominan quedan ‘etnificadas’, es decir, quedan representadas en el pasado o en el futuro como si formaran una comunidad natural, que posee por sí misma una identidad de origen, de cultura, de intereses, que trasciende a los individuos y las condiciones sociales”. Esta concepción de la nacionalidad tratada como etnificación del origen de un pueblo, se instala como un factor determinante que divide a quienes se reconocen como los normales de aquellos otros que son tratados como los desviados. Para Balibar la “etnicidad ficticia” puede ser producida por dos vías diferentes, pero complementarias: la lengua y la raza. Ambas consideran que el carácter nacional es inmanente al pueblo y “se presentan como un destino”, como hechos de la naturaleza, como hechos que están dados incuestionablemente. La comunidad de la lengua permite que individuos de sectores sociales –clases sociales- muy diferentes estén comunicados entre sí por una cadena de discursos intermedios, como dice Balibar (1991: 151)2, “no están aislados, ni de hecho, ni de derecho”, de este modo, la comunidad de la lengua, naturaliza la desigualdad social. Compartir la lengua los iguala y diferencia de los otros, pero a la vez coloca la desigualdad social inherente a su pueblo en un plano secundario, a veces invisible. La escuela, es la principal institución en la que se produce etnicidad como comunidad de la lengua. Por otra parte, la comunidad de la raza etnifica la diferencia social, “dándole forma de división entre lo nacional ‘verdadero’ y lo nacional ‘falso’”, en otras palabras, entre lo normal y lo patológico y basándose en la idea de parentesco que se trasmite de una generación a otra, apelando a una cuestión biológica y espiritual que, si bien unifica, disuelve las diferencias sociales. Quien no reproduzca esta normalidad ocupará el lugar del desviado, de aquel que se aleja, incumple con estos criterios, que no son otra cosa que mandatos gestados al interior de esta cultura normal y hegemónica.

Un idea que ha estado presente en muchos pueblos, y lo sigue estando, es la de considerar que cuanto más nos mezclamos (entendido como acto de compartir proyectos, asociarse a partir de ideas y de intereses comunes, integrarse social, política y económicamente, construir una sociedad culturalmente plural) con ese “otro” extranjero, con ese “otro” cuyas creencias y prácticas culturales y religiosas son diferentes, muchas veces desconocidas, más se debilita, más se fragiliza nuestra identidad nacional. Hay una concepción mecánica y determinista del vínculo con el diferente que se condensa en esta noción de “mezcla”. Este modo de concebir las relaciones sociales con los otros, según Hannah Arendt (1987)3, proviene de fines del siglo XIX cuando se consideraba que la decadencia de la raza se debía “a la mezcla de sangres. Esto implica que en cada mezcla la raza inferior es siempre la dominante”. Extraña percepción a partir de la cual el “otro” inferiorizado, es dominante. Esta representación temeraria de mezclarse con el “otro”, pareciera que conlleva la idea de disolución de lo propio, de pérdida o, en el menos conflictivo de los casos, de confusión. Frente a este temor surge la necesidad de controlar a ese extraño, disciplinarlo, limitarlo en su acceso a derechos. La acción nacionalizadora, entendida como disolución o negación de la identidad del otro, expresa esa respuesta ante una imagen peligrosa a la que debe ponérsele límites. Se combate la heterogeneidad con una propuesta basada en la homogeneidad. Se evita la mezcla, desaparece la diferencia, buscando preservar al nativo. La cercanía y la libertad del “otro” es peligrosa para “nosotros”, resultan necesarios la distancia y los controles, se rechaza toda posible relación social igualitaria. El diferente ocupa un lugar, existe, como tal se lo reconoce, pero bajo condiciones (disciplinas) reguladas desde “nosotros”. La etnicidad ficticia y el temor a la mezcla conforman dos expresiones presentes, y muy vitales, en la vida cotidiana de la gran mayoría de los pueblos.
 
Cómo transita la diversidad en Argentina

    La Argentina tiene una extensa y variada tradición migratoria externa. Desde fines del siglo XIX, con ritmos de diferente intensidad demográfica, y hasta mediados del siglo XX las migraciones de origen europeo, mayoritariamente españoles e italianos y en menor medida polacos, rusos, rumanos, alemanes, turcos –al interior de estos cinco casos, muchos de ellos eran de origen judío-, como también de otros lugares de Europa, llegaron a nuestras costas y se radicaron en el Area Metropolitana de Buenos Aires y, constituyendo agrupamientos más pequeños, en diferentes lugares del país. Durante todo el siglo XX y lo que va del XXI cruzaron nuestras fronteras personas de origen paraguayo, boliviano, chileno, uruguayo, peruano y de otros orígenes latinoamericanos. En diferentes momentos dentro de los últimos, aproximadamente, setenta años llegaron personas de origen asiático, japoneses primero, coreanos, chinos, entre otros, después y, en menor medida durante el siglo pasado, pero algo más intensamente en estos últimos quince años están llegando personas de origen africano, mayoritariamente, de la región subsahariana. Nacionalidades, costumbres, idiomas, religiones diversas acompañan y participan de la sociedad argentina desde sus orígenes.

Expresiones populares como “venimos de los barcos”, aludiendo a que nuestros orígenes están más allá del Océano Atlántico o “somos un crisol de razas” apelando a una metáfora que expresa la síntesis, la fusión, de orígenes nacionales y culturales tan diferentes, son consecuencia de esa realidad migratoria que nos acompaña desde nuestro nacimiento como nación soberana.    Sin embargo, a esta diversidad que está en nuestras bases, en nuestros cimientos, que atraviesa a la mayoría de nuestras familias, no siempre la reconocemos y aceptamos como parte de nuestra identidad como pueblo. Es frecuente que nuestras relaciones sociales con los migrantes externos, a lo largo de nuestra historia y hasta el presente, se constituyan en relaciones desiguales, portadoras de cierto carácter conflictivo. Basta recorrer, de modo sintético pero suficientemente testimonial, diferentes hechos de nuestro pasado y nuestro presente, para entender que Argentina no se ha asumido aún como una sociedad étnicamente plural. La ley 4.144 de Residencia sancionada en 1902 –en medio de uno de los momentos de mayor intensidad migratoria de nuestra historia-, habilitaba al gobierno de turno, sin intervención de la justicia y en un plazo de 72 horas, a expulsar a los extranjeros que considerara incumplían con la norma. Esta ley tardó 56 años en ser derogada, durante más de medio siglo, con gobiernos democráticos y con gobiernos producto de golpes de estado, esta normativa amenazó el día a día de los migrantes externos. El calificativo peyorativo de “cabecita negra” y sus variantes estigmatizadoras instaladas a partir de fines de la década de 1940 con respecto a los migrantes internos y referida, también, a miembros de algunas colectividades sudamericanas. Las desapariciones, expulsiones y apresamientos de migrantes de los países limítrofes ocurridos durante la dictadura militar entre 1976 y 1983. El discurso xenófobo producido desde el poder político acompañado por algunos sectores del gremialismo y el empresariado en la década de 1990 con respecto a los migrantes de origen boliviano, paraguayo y peruano y, en alguna medida también hacia los de origen asiático, son otras de las expresiones xenófobas surgidas de ciertos núcleos de la sociedad civil y política, pero acompañadas por cierta indiferencia mayoritaria. En la actualidad encontramos evidencias empíricas de su continuidad como ha sido el conflicto en el Parque Indoamericano ocurrido a fines de 2010, acompañado de declaraciones y expresiones hostiles realizadas desde la sociedad civil y el poder político hacia migrantes de países limítrofes, principalmente bolivianos y verbalizaciones descalificadoras hacia las mismas colectividades en diferentes ámbitos públicos. Finalmente, diferentes manifestaciones antisemitas por medio de pintadas, ataques violentos a cementerios, uso de la web, agresiones verbales, etcétera, que si bien están localizadas en determinados grupos xenófobos, no dejan de formar parte de este mapa, en manera discontinua durante todo el siglo XX y lo que va del XXI, pero nunca ausente de la realidad de la Argentina diversa. Pero todos estos hechos, sumados a diferentes ataques individuales que han recibido y reciben personas de origen judío o de origen boliviano en diferentes lugares del país, chilenos en la región patagónica, entre otros, como así también los atentados a la Embajada de Israel y a la AMIA aún irresueltos, no son producto ni del azar ni de grupos demenciales, son la expresión social y política de una Nación. Cuando esto ocurre es porque la sociedad en su conjunto no toma conciencia o ha construido una falsa conciencia.

Este modo de manifestarse responde a códigos que atraviesan a los distintos actores sociales y a determinadas instituciones de modo tal que el decir y el hacer de algunos, es asumido como dichos o hechos naturales o normales por los otros. Se consolida, entonces, un código que establece quiénes tienen la condición jurídico-política de ciudadanos y quiénes no, quiénes se involucran en los distintos niveles de participación social, económica y política y quiénes quedan fuera. Un código que establece las diferencias entre lo normal y lo desviado, entre lo permitido y lo prohibido, un código de premios y castigos. Ese código es el resultado de una construcción histórica cuyo mandato ha sido concebir la idea de Nación como occidental, blanca y católica. Estos principios han atravesado las distintas coyunturas económicas y políticas y de este modo es necesario interpretar el fenómeno de la interculturalidad en Argentina. Más aún, desconocer ese código, los valores que están en juego, puede llevar a un análisis empirista de la realidad intercultural alejado de toda posible interpretación. Siguiendo a Benhabib (2005)4, caracterizo a este código como moral y hegemónico. Moral porque determina lo que debe ser y lo que no, lo permitido (lo que se espera) y lo trasgresor (lo prohibido). Hegemónico porque es funcional al polo dominante, porque lo legitima en tanto tal y se constituye como código único. Para Balibar (1991: 68)5 “el racismo es en sí mismo una historia singular” que toma del pasado una serie de acontecimientos que delimitan, que definen su lugar en el presente. Lejos de entender al racismo como una sucesión de hechos aislados, manifestaciones o “brotes”, advierte que se trata de un fenómeno integrado por acontecimientos del pasado que “se deben considerar como formaciones que siguen estando activas, en parte conscientes y en parte inconscientes, que contribuyen a estructurar los comportamientos y los movimientos que surgen de las condiciones actuales”. La realidad intercultural argentina no escapa a estas reflexiones, el modo como se administra la diversidad étnica en instituciones tales como la escuela, el poder judicial y las fuerzas de seguridad y el modo como se expresa la diversidad en distintos ámbitos públicos (la calle, los barrios, los estadios de fútbol, etc.), son escenarios que permiten caracterizar las relaciones interculturales como portadoras de núcleos o polos conflictivos.

Si bien contamos con la ley 23.592 que penaliza los actos discriminatorios y con la ley de migraciones 25.871 que regula la admisión, el ingreso, la permanencia y el egreso del país de personas extranjeras, configurando un marco normativo garantista de los derechos de las personas, no implica esto que la razón de ser de estas leyes se reproduzca en el mismo sentido a lo largo de toda la sociedad civil y política del país. Lejos de ocurrir, como señalara en el párrafo anterior, a lo largo de estos últimos ciento diez años diferentes colectividades –de origen europeo a comienzos del siglo pasado, de origen sudamericano y asiático posteriormente, de origen judío en diferentes momentos- padecieron y padecen un trato diferencial inferiorizador, estigmatizante, agresivo, que me lleva a expresar que el acceso a derecho de estas personas, independientemente del valioso marco normativo que contamos, sigue siendo inestable y contradictorio.


Por Néstor Cohen – Congreso Judío Latinoamericano

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